the small business administration lends money to small businesses, aids
victims of floods and other natural disasters, and helps secure contracts
for small businesses to supply goods and services to the federal
government.
THE UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID) carries out
economic assistance programs designed to help the people in developing
countries develop their human and economic resources, increase their
productive capacities, and improve the quality of human life. The USAID
administrator also serves as director of the U.S. International Development
Cooperation Agency, which serves as the focal point for U.S. participation
in such organizations as the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organization
of American States (OAS) Technical Assistance Funds program, the World Bank
Group, and along with the Department of Agriculture, the Food for Peace
Program.
THE UNITED STATES ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT AGENCY is responsible for
U.S. participation in international negotiations on arms limitation and
disarmament. It represents the United States on international arms control
commissions and supports research on arms control and disarmament.
THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY (USIA) seeks to promote better
understanding of the United States in other countries through the
dissemination abroad of information about the nation, its people, culture
and policies. USIA also administers a number of two-way educational and
cultural exchange programs, such as the Fulbright Program, with foreign
nations. It provides assistance to foreign press and television journalists
covering the United States. The Agency also advises the president and the
various departments of the government on foreign opinion concerning U.S.
policies and programs.
the united states postal service is operated by an autonomous public
corporation that replaced the Post Office Department in 1971. The Postal
Service is responsible for the collection, transportation and delivery of
the mails, and for the operation of thousands of local post offices across
the country. It also provides international mail service through the
Universal Postal Union and other agreements with foreign countries. An
independent Postal Rate Commission, also created in 1971, sets the rates
for different classes of mail.
THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
A BICAMERAL CONGRESS
Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative powers of the federal
government to a Congress divided into two chambers. a Senate and a House of
Representatives. The Senate, the smaller of the two, is composed of two
members for each state as provided by the Constitution, Membership in the
House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the
Constitution.
For more than 100 years after the adoption of the Constitution, senators
were not elected by direct vote of the people but were chosen by state
legislatures. Senators were looked on as representatives of their home
states. Their duty was to ensure that their states were treated equally in
all legislation. The 17th Amendment, adopted in 1913, provided for direct
election of the Senate.
The delegates to the Constitutional Convention reasoned that if two
separate groups—one representing state governments and one representing the
people—must both approve every proposed law, there would be little danger
of Congress passing laws hurriedly or carelessly. One house could always
check the other in the manner of the British Parliament. Passage of the
17th Amendment did not substantially alter this balance of power between
the two houses.
While there was intense debate in the Convention over the makeup and
powers of Congress, many delegates believed that the legislative branch
would be relatively unimportant. A few believed that the Congress would
concern itself largely with external affairs, leaving domestic matters to
state and local governments. These views were clearly wide of the mark. The
Congress has proved to be exceedingly active, with broad powers and
authority in all matters of national concern. While its strength vis-a-vis
the executive branch has waxed and waned at different periods of American
history, the Congress has never been impotent or a rubber stamp for
presidential decisions.
QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS OF CONCRESS
The Constitution requires that U.S. senators must be at least 30 years of
age, citizens of the United States for at least nine years, and residents
of the states from which they are elected. Members of the House of
Representatives must be at least 25, citizens for seven years, and
residents of the states which send them to Congress. The states may set
additional requirements for election to Congress, but the Constitution
gives each house the power to determine the qualifications of its members.
Each state is entitled to two senators. Thus, Rhode Island, the smallest
state, with an area of about 3,156 square kilometers has the same
senatorial representation as Alaska, the biggest state, with an area of
some 1,524,640 square kilometers. Wyoming, with 490,000 persons in 1987,
has representation equal to that of California, with its 1987 population of
27,663,000.
The total number of members of the House of Representatives has been
determined by Congress. That number is then divided among the states
according to their populations. Regardless of its population, every state
is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of
Representatives. At present, six states—Alaska, Delaware, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Vermont and Wyoming—have only one representative. On the
other hand, six states have more than 20 representatives—California alone
has 45.
The Constitution provides for a national census each 10 years and a
redistribution of House seats according to population shifts. Under the
original constitutional provision, the number of representatives was to be
no more than one for each 30,000 citizens. There were 65 members in the
first House, and the number was increased to 106 after the first census.
Had the one-to-30,000 formula been adhered to permanently, population
growth in the United States would have brought the total number of
representatives to about 7,000. Instead, the formula has been adjusted over
the years, and today the House is composed of 435 members, roughly one for
each 530,000 persons in the United States.
State legislatures divide the states into congressional districts, which
must be substantially equal in population. Every two years, the voters of
each district choose a representative for Congress.
Senators are chosen in statewide elections held in even-numbered years.
The senatorial term is six years, and every two years one-third of the
Senate stands for election. Hence, two-thirds of the senators are always
persons with some legislative experience at the national level.
It is theoretically possible for the House to be composed entirely of
legislative novices. In practice, however, most members are reelected
several times and the House, like the Senate, can always count on a core
group of experienced legislators.
Since members of the House serve two-year terms, the life of a Congress
is considered to be two years. The 20th Amendment provides that the
Congress will meet in regular session each January 3, unless Congress fixes
a different date. The Congress remains in session until its members vote to
adjourn—usually late in the year. The president may call a special session
when he or she thinks it necessary. Sessions are held in the Capitol in
Washington, D.C.
POWERS OF THE HOUSE AND SENATE
Each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any
subject except revenue bills, which must originate in the House of
Representatives. The large states may thus appear to have more influence
over the public purse than the small states. In practice, however, each
house can vote against legislation passed by the other house. The Senate
may disapprove a House revenue bill—or any bill, for that matter—or add
amendments which change its nature. In that event, a conference committee
made up of members from both houses must work out a compromise acceptable
to both sides before the bill becomes law.
The Senate also has certain powers especially reserved to that body,
including the authority to confirm presidential appointments of high
officials and ambassadors of the federal government as well as authority to
ratify all treaties by a two-thirds vote. Unfavorable action in either
instance nullifies executive action.
In the case of impeachment of federal officials, the House has the sole
right to bring charges of misconduct that can lead to an impeachment trial.
The Senate has the sole power to try impeachment cases and to find
officials guilty or not guilty. A finding of guilt results in the removal
of the federal official from public office.
The broad powers of the whole Congress are spelled out in the eighth
section of the first article of the Constitution:
— to levy and collect taxes;
— to borrow money for the public treasury;
— to make rules and regulations governing commerce among the states and
with foreign countries;
— to make uniform rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens;
— to coin money, state its value, and provide for the punishment of
counterfeiters;
— to set the standards for weights and measures;
— to establish bankruptcy laws for the country as a whole;
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